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Indian History & National Movement - Complete Notes

Indian History & National Movement (Complete Study Notes)

1. Ancient India

Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600 – 1900 BCE)

The Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) was a Bronze Age urban society concentrated along the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river systems.

Urban Planning & Architecture: Cities followed a strict grid system (roads cutting at right angles). Standardized burnt bricks with a ratio of 4:2:1 were used. Covered drainage system with soak pits and inspection manholes. Divided into Citadel (west) and Lower Town (east).
Harappa: Six granaries in a row, cemetery R-37, sandstone male torso.
Mohenjo-daro: Great Bath (lined with bitumen), Great Granary, Bronze Dancing Girl, Priest-King statue.
Lothal: Artificial dockyard, rice husk evidence, fire altars.
Kalibangan: Ploughed field surface, fire altars, camel bones.
Dholavira: Three-part city division, giant stone-cut water reservoirs, 10-letter inscription board.
Chanhudaro: Bead-making factory; only Harappan city without a citadel.
Economy & Society: Barter trade, chert stone weights, trade with Mesopotamia (Meluhha). Worship of Mother Goddess, Pashupati seal, pipal tree; no formal temple structures found.

Vedic Culture (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)

Vedic Period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)
 ├── Early Vedic / Rigvedic (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE) → Saptasindhu; Pastoral; Egalitarian; Bronze (Ayas)
 └── Later Vedic (c. 1000 – 600 BCE)            → Gangetic Plains; Agrarian; Varna Rigidity; Iron (Shyama Ayas)

Early Vedic (Rigvedic) Period (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE)

Polity: Tribal structure headed by Rajan, checked by assemblies: Sabha (elders), Samiti (folk assembly), and Vidatha (redistribution).
Economy & Society: Pastoral; cattle (Gau) was chief wealth. Battles were fought for cows (Gavishti). Society was flexible; women scholars included Lopamudra, Ghosha, and Gargi.
Religion: Personified nature forces: Indra (Purandara - 250 hymns), Agni (200 hymns), Varuna (Rita - cosmic order).

Later Vedic Period (c. 1000 – 600 BCE)

Expansion: Shifted to western UP and Gangetic plains. Used iron tools (Shyama Ayas) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
Polity: Territorial Janapadas formed. Kings conducted Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, and Vajapeya sacrifices. Sabha and Samiti lost power.
Society: Rigid four Varnas based on birth; four Ashramas formalized. Prajapati, Rudra, and Vishnu became dominant deities.

Vedic Literature

Rigveda: 10 Mandalas, 1,028 hymns (Mandala III: Gayatri Mantra; Mandala X: Purusha Sukta).
Samaveda: Book of chants; root of Indian music.
Yajurveda: Ritual formulas (Shukla and Krishna).
Atharvaveda: Daily charms, spells, indigenous medicines.
Upanishads: 108 philosophical treaties; Mundaka Upanishad contains "Satyameva Jayate".

Religious Movements: Buddhism & Jainism (6th Century BCE)

Buddhism

Founder: Gautama Buddha (Lumbini; enlightened at Bodh Gaya under Pipal tree).
Core Philosophy: Four Noble Truths (Chatvari Arya Satyani) and the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga). Pratityasamutpada (Law of Dependent Origination). Rejected Vedic authority and permanent soul (Anatta).

Council	Year	Place	Patron	Chairman	Key Outcome
1st	483 BCE	Rajgriha	Ajatashatru	Mahakassapa	Vinaya Pitaka (Upali) & Sutta Pitaka (Ananda) compiled.
2nd	383 BCE	Vaishali	Kalashoka	Sabakami	Split: Sthaviravadins & Mahasanghikas.
3rd	250 BCE	Pataliputra	Ashoka	Moggaliputta Tissa	Abhidhamma Pitaka added; foreign missions sent.
4th	72 CE	Kundalvana	Kanishka	Vasumitra	Split into Hinayana and Mahayana.

Jainism

Tradition: 24 Tirthankaras (1st: Rishabhanatha; 23rd: Parshvanatha; 24th: Vardhamana Mahavira).
Mahavira: Kundagrama (Vaishali); achieved Kevala Jnana under a Sal tree.
Doctrines: Triratna (Right Faith, Knowledge, Conduct). Extreme Ahimsa, Anekantavada (multi-sided reality), Syadvada.
Schism: Digambaras (sky-clad, led by Bhadrabahu) and Shvetambaras (white-clad, led by Sthulabhadra).

Maurya Dynasty (321 – 185 BCE)

Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE): Defeated Dhanananda with Chanakya; defeated Seleucus I Nicator (305 BCE). Megasthenes wrote Indica. Embraced Jainism and underwent Sallekhana at Shravanabelagola.
Ashoka (268–232 BCE): Kalinga War (261 BCE, 13th Major Rock Edict) transformed him from Bherighosha to Dhammaghosha. Appointed Dhamma Mahamattas. Inscriptions deciphered by James Prinsep (1837). Centralized administration described in Kautilya's Arthashastra.

Gupta Dynasty (c. 319 – 543 CE)

Chandragupta I: Started Gupta Era (319–320 CE), assumed Maharajadhiraja title.
Samudragupta: Prayag Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar) composed by Harishena; named "Indian Napoleon" by V.A. Smith. Issued veena-playing gold coins.
Chandragupta II: Defeated Sakas; Faxian visited. Court had Navaratnas (Kalidasa, Varahamihira, Amarasimha, Dhanvantari).
Kumaragupta I: Founded Nalanda Mahavihara.
Science & Art: Aryabhata (Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta), Brahmagupta. Nagara style temples (Deogarh Dashavatara) and Ajanta murals.

Harshavardhana (606 – 647 CE)

Shifted capital from Thanesar to Kannauj. Southern expansion halted by Pulakeshin II (Aihole Inscription).
Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited. Held Kannauj assembly and quinquennial Prayag assembly. Banabhatta authored Harshacharita & Kadambari. Harsha wrote Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, Nagananda.

Rajput Period (c. 750 – 1200 CE)

Tripartite Struggle: 200-year conflict for Kannauj among Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas (Dharmapala founded Vikramashila), and Rashtrakutas (Krishna I built Kailash Temple, Ellora).
Chauhans: Prithviraj III won 1st Tarain (1191), lost 2nd Tarain (1192) to Muhammad Ghori.
Chandellas: Built Khajuraho temples (Kandariya Mahadeva).

2. Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate (1206 – 1526 CE)

Slave Dynasty (1206–1290): Qutb-ud-din Aibak (Lakhbaksh, began Qutb Minar). Iltutmish (established Iqta system, Turkan-i-Chahalgani, Tanka & Jittal coins). Razia Sultana (first female sultan). Balban (divine kingship, Blood & Iron, Sijda, Paibos, Nauroz).
Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320): Alauddin Khalji introduced cash salaries, Dagh (branding horses), Chehra (descriptive rolls), fixed market prices supervised by Shahna-i-Mandi, and sent Malik Kafur to conquer the Deccan.
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414): Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Doab taxation hike, Delhi to Daulatabad capital shift, token copper currency, Diwan-i-Kohi; visited by Ibn Battuta). Firoz Shah Tughlaq (canals, Jizya separated, built Jaunpur/Hissar, Diwan-i-Bandagan).
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526): Sikandar Lodi founded Agra (1504) and introduced Gaj-i-Sikandari. Ibrahim Lodi defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526).

Mughal Empire (1526 – 1707 CE)

Babur (1526–1530): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (Panipat, 1526) and Rana Sanga (Khanwa, 1527) using Tulughma tactics and artillery. Wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi.
Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545): Ousted Humayun (Chausa 1539, Kannauj 1540). Built Grand Trunk Road and introduced the Rupiya.
Akbar (1556–1605): Won 2nd Panipat (1556) under Bairam Khan. Mansabdari system (Zat & Sawar) and Dahsala land revenue system (Todar Mal). Built Ibadat Khana, issued Mahzar, and introduced Sulh-i-Kul & Din-i-Ilahi.
Jahangir (1605–1627): Zanjir-i-Adil (Chain of Justice); Mughal painting peaked; permitted British trade missions (Hawkins, Thomas Roe).
Shah Jahan (1628–1658): Architectural peak (Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Peacock Throne).
Aurangzeb (1658–1707): Annexed Bijapur and Golconda; reimposed Jizya (1679); banned court music; executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675).

Maratha Empire

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1627/30–1680): Guerrilla tactics (Ganimi Kawa). Treaty of Purandar (1665) with Jai Singh. Coronated at Raigad (1674). Formed Ashtapradhan council. Levied Chauth (25%) and Sardeshmukhi (10%).
Peshwa Rule: Balaji Vishwanath and Baji Rao I expanded confederacy. Third Battle of Panipat (1761) saw Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali.

3. Modern India & National Movement

British Expansion & Consolidation

Battle of Plassey (1757): Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah via Mir Jafar's treachery.
Battle of Buxar (1764): Munro defeated Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, and Shah Alam II. Resulted in Treaty of Allahabad (1765) granting Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
Annexation Policies: Subsidiary Alliance (Wellesley, 1798 - first: Hyderabad). Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie - Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur). Awadh annexed in 1856 on maladministration.
Revolt of 1857: Began at Barrackpore (Mangal Pandey). Crown took over rule via Government of India Act 1858.

Socio-Religious Reform & Early Nationalism

Brahmo Samaj (1828): Raja Ram Mohan Roy (anti-Sati regulation 1829 under Bentinck).
Arya Samaj (1875): Swami Dayananda Saraswati ("Go back to the Vedas", Satyarth Prakash).
Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Swami Vivekananda (1893 Chicago speech).
Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Jyotirao Phule (anti-caste, Gulamgiri).
INC Foundation (1885): Formed by A.O. Hume; 1st session at Bombay chaired by W.C. Bonnerjee. Moderates used constitutional "3 Ps" (Petitions, Prayers, Protests). Dadabhai Naoroji gave "Drain of Wealth" theory.

Swadeshi Movement & Extremism (1905 – 1919)

Partition of Bengal (1905): Implemented by Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905. Led to Swadeshi & Boycott movement led by Lal-Bal-Pal.
Surat Split (1907): Congress split into Moderates and Extremists.
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Separate electorates for Muslims introduced.
Lucknow Pact (1916): Moderates and Extremists reunited; joint agreement between INC and Muslim League.

Gandhian Era & Mass Movements (1917 – 1947)

Early Satyagrahas: Champaran (1917, Tinkathia system), Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918, first hunger strike), Kheda (1918, first non-cooperation).
Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh (1919): Indefinite arrests; firing ordered by Dyer on April 13, 1919. Tagore renounced knighthood.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922): Along with Khilafat Movement; boycott of government institutions. Withdrawn after Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 4, 1922).
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934): Purna Swaraj declared at Lahore Session (1929). Dandi March (March 12 – April 6, 1930) broke salt laws. Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and Ambedkar replaced separate electorates with reserved seats for depressed classes.
Quit India Movement (1942): August Kranti resolution passed; Gandhi gave "Do or Die" call. British launched Operation Zero Hour. Underground leaders: Aruna Asaf Ali, JP Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia.
INA & Independence (1943–1947): Subhas Chandra Bose led Azad Hind Fauj ("Dilli Chalo"). Royal Indian Navy Revolt (1946). Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) led to the Indian Independence Act 1947.

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